Status of Women's Empowerment in India: Measurement, Trends and Determinants

Abstract

The study aims to measure women's empowerment in India across multiple dimensions, analysing trends from 2005-2006 to 2019-2021 using NFHS unitlevel data. A Multi-dimensional Women's Disempowerment Index (MWDI) has been created, emphasising decision-making, mobility, and awareness. The Heckman Two-Step Estimation Model investigated the influence of demographic, social, cultural, and economic variables in women's empowerment. Results suggest that 53.3 per cent of married women are still disempowered, with rural, ST, OBC, and Muslim women being the most susceptible. Education, employment, financial inclusion, and mass media impact empowerment positively, whereas low self-esteem and spouse dominance have the opposite effect.